Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic: تصوّف) is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam.[1] A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ). Another name for a Sufi is Dervish.
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose
objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all
else but God".[4] Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits".[5]
Classical Sufis were characterised by their attachment to dhikr (a practice of repeating the names of God) and asceticism. Sufism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE).
Sufis have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium,
at first expressed through Arabic, then through Persian, Turkish and a
dozen other languages.[7] "Orders" (ṭuruq), which are either Sunnī or Shī'ī or mixed[8] in doctrine, trace many of their original precepts from the Islamic Prophet Muhammad through his cousin 'Alī, with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi who trace their origins through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr. Other exclusive schools of Sufism describe themselves as distinctly Sufi.[10] Modern Sufis often perform dhikr after the conclusion of prayers.[11]
Some mainstream scholars of Islam define sufism as simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam.[1] René Guénon in Insights into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism
(Sophia Perennis 2003) contended that Sufism was the esoteric aspect of
Islam supported and complemented by exoteric practices and Islamic law.
However, according to Idries Shah,
the Sufi philosophy is universal in nature, its roots predating the
rise of Islam and the other modern-day religions, save for perhaps Buddhism and Jainism; likewise, some Muslims consider Sufism outside the sphere of Islam.[1][12]
Two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the lexical root of the word is traced to ṣafā (صَفا), which in Arabic means "purity". Another origin is ṣūf (صُوف), "wool", referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore.
The two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity." The wool cloaks were sometimes a designation of their initiation into the Sufi order.[citation needed]. Others have suggested that word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah ("the people of the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of ḏikr.
According to the medieval Iranian scholar Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, the word sūfi is derived from the Greek word sofia (σοφία), meaning wisdom.
Basic Views of Sufism
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and
hope to become close to God in Paradise—after death and after the "Final
Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God
and to more fully embrace the Divine Presence in this life.[19] The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of fitra,[20] described in the Qur'an. In this state nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken with the single motivation of love of God. A secondary consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all notions of dualism or multiplicity, including a conception of an individual self, and to realize the Divine Unity.[citation needed]
Thus, Sufism has been characterized[by whom?]
as the science of the states of the lower self (the ego), and the way
of purifying this lower self of its reprehensible traits, while adorning
it instead with what is praiseworthy, whether or not this process of
cleansing and purifying the heart is in time rewarded by esoteric
knowledge of God. This can be conceived in terms of two basic types of
law (fiqh), an outer law concerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with the human heart.[citation needed]
The outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions,
marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, a
bit too broadly, as qanun.
The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin,
the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and
adornment with virtues and good character.[21]
Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim mysticism, was originally a
response to the increasing worldly power of Islamic leaders as the
religion spread during the 8th Century and their corresponding shift in
focus towards materialistic and political concerns.[citation needed] In particular, Harun al-Rashid, the fifth Abbasid Caliph,
attracted negative attention for his lavish lifestyle, including gold
and silver tableware, an extensive harem and numerous slaves and
retainers, that stood in contrast to the relative simplicity of
Muhammad's life.[citation needed]
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque and taught a small
band of disciples. The extent to which Sufism was influenced by
Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, and by the example of Christian hermits
and monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on God
quickly led to the belief that by quelling the self and through loving
ardour for God it is possible to maintain a union with the divine in
which the human self melts away.
Teaching
To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by finding a teacher,
as the connection to the teacher is considered necessary for the growth
of the pupil. The teacher, to be genuine, must have received the
authorization to teach (ijazah) from another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession (silsilah) leading back to Sufism's origin with Muhammad.[dubious ][citation needed]
It is the transmission of the divine light from the teacher's heart to
the heart of the student, rather than of worldly knowledge transmitted
from mouth to ear, that allows the adept to progress. In addition, the
genuine teacher will be utterly strict in his adherence to the Divine
Law.
Scholars and adherents of Sufism are unanimous in agreeing that Sufism cannot be learned through books.[dubious ]
To reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires
that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for many, many years.[citation needed] For instance, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi
Order, served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20
years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently served several other
teachers for lengthy periods of time. The extreme arduousness of his
spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service, as directed by his
teacher, to the weak and needy members of his community in a state of
complete humility and tolerance for many years. When he believed this
mission to be concluded, his teacher next directed him to care for
animals, curing their sicknesses, cleaning their wounds, and assisting
them in finding provision. After many years of this he was next
instructed to spend many years in the care of dogs in a state of
humility, and to ask them for support.[24]
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi
Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for
the poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual
instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a
precondition of completing that instruction.
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or
mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor.[26]
Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders,
Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal
experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other,
non-Islamic forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Seyyed Hossein Nasr)
In its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.[27]
According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an,
constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded,
in its origin and its development.[28] Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad,(P.B.U.H) through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.[29] More prosaically, the Muslim Conquests
had brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits, especially in
Syria and Egypt, under the rule of Muslims. They retained a vigorous
spiritual life for centuries after the conquests, and many of the
especially pious Muslims who founded Sufism were influenced by their
techniques and methods.[30]
From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of Sufism were transmitted from Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to those who had the capacity to acquire the direct experiential gnosis of God, which was passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Some of this transmission is summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was the first one to write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. Bayazid Bastami was among the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with fanā and baqā, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena derived from that perspective.[31]
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.[32] Almost all extant Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission (silsila) back to Muhammad (P.B.U.H)via his cousin and son-in-law Ali. The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[9]
Different devotional styles and traditions developed over time, reflecting the perspectives of different masters and the accumulated cultural wisdom of the orders. Typically all of these concerned themselves with the understanding of subtle knowledge (gnosis), education of the heart to purify it of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through a well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations (maqâmât) and more transient spiritual states (ahwâl).
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of Hujwiri, and the Risâla of Qushayri.[33]
Two of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts [example needed]. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the first time,[34] allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.
The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the
spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures,
especially in Africa[35] and Asia. Persian Sufi poets and philosophers such as Rumi and Attar of Nishapur
greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia, Central
Asia, and South Asia. Sufism also played a role in creating and
propagating the culture of the Ottoman world,[36] and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.[37]
From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of Sufism were transmitted from Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to those who had the capacity to acquire the direct experiential gnosis of God, which was passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Some of this transmission is summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was the first one to write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. Bayazid Bastami was among the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with fanā and baqā, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena derived from that perspective.[31]
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.[32] Almost all extant Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission (silsila) back to Muhammad (P.B.U.H)via his cousin and son-in-law Ali. The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[9]
Different devotional styles and traditions developed over time, reflecting the perspectives of different masters and the accumulated cultural wisdom of the orders. Typically all of these concerned themselves with the understanding of subtle knowledge (gnosis), education of the heart to purify it of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through a well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations (maqâmât) and more transient spiritual states (ahwâl).
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of Hujwiri, and the Risâla of Qushayri.[33]
Two of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts [example needed]. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the first time,[34] allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.
Growth of Sufi influence in Islamic cultures
Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a flourishing
intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose
physical artifacts are still present. In many places, a lodge (known
variously as a zaouia, khanqah, or tekke) would be endowed through a pious foundation in perpetuity (waqf)
to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for
itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also
be used to pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the
Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice
with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a
period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important
domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in
this period
Contemporary Sufism
Contemporary Sufism
Sufism is popular in such African countries as Morocco and Senegal, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam.[40] Sufism is traditional in Morocco but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of sufism around contemporary spiritual teachers such as Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.
The life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir Abd al-Qadir is instructive in this regard. Notable as well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and Hajj Umar Tall in sub-Saharan Africa, and Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus region. In the twentieth century some more modernist Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion that holds back Islamic achievement in the fields of science and technology.
For a more thorough, though incomplete, summary of currently active groups and teachers, readers are referred to links in the site of Dr. Alan Godlas of the University of Georgia.
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish-born wandering Sufi Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known as Ivan Aguéli). René Guénon, the French scholar, became a sufi in the early twentieth century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of sufism as the essence of Islam but also pointed to the universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as G. I. Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who were active in the West in recent years include Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh, Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah and Muzaffer Ozak.
Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee, Abdal Hakim Murad and the Franco-Moroccan Faouzi Skali.
Song of the Reed
By Mowlana Jalaluddin Rumi
Translated by A.Z. Foreman
Listen now to the reed flute trilling tales
Of separation. Hear the way it wails:
"Since I was hewn from Reedland, I've begun
weeping with humankind in unison.
I seek torn bosoms. To them I explain
How I am torn from my love, torn in pain.
All things uprooted from the land remain
Athirst for union with the source again.
In every league of life, I sang my pangs,
Both among happy crowds and hapless gangs.
Their own thoughts were the thing they loved me for.
They would not seek the secret that I bore.
My secret was not separate from my cries
But was sequestered from mere ears and eyes.
Not soul from skin nor skin from soul is sealed
Yet none may ever see the soul revealed.
Not wind, but fire blows song through my piped heart.
May all who lack that fire be blown apart.
The fire that makes the reed repine is love.
The ferment ripening the wine is love."
This reed flute soothes all sundered lovers' pain.
True minds need not refrain from its refrain.
What poison ever cures beside the reed's?
What crazed love reassures beside the reed's?
This reed flute trills tales of a love-obsessed
Madman of legend on his bloodstained quest.
The lovelost find the meaning here alone.
That tongue speaks to a certain ear alone.
As days slipped off to evenings in our sorrow
We burned and yearned through every hot tomorrow.
But though the days slip off, You will endure
And matter more, Inimitably Pure.
Only the fish forever drink the seas.
A life by bread alone brings longer days.
No raw mind can see through a ripe mind's eye,
So let us talk no more of this. Goodbye.
By Mowlana Jalaluddin Rumi
Translated by A.Z. Foreman
Listen now to the reed flute trilling tales
Of separation. Hear the way it wails:
"Since I was hewn from Reedland, I've begun
weeping with humankind in unison.
I seek torn bosoms. To them I explain
How I am torn from my love, torn in pain.
All things uprooted from the land remain
Athirst for union with the source again.
In every league of life, I sang my pangs,
Both among happy crowds and hapless gangs.
Their own thoughts were the thing they loved me for.
They would not seek the secret that I bore.
My secret was not separate from my cries
But was sequestered from mere ears and eyes.
Not soul from skin nor skin from soul is sealed
Yet none may ever see the soul revealed.
Not wind, but fire blows song through my piped heart.
May all who lack that fire be blown apart.
The fire that makes the reed repine is love.
The ferment ripening the wine is love."
This reed flute soothes all sundered lovers' pain.
True minds need not refrain from its refrain.
What poison ever cures beside the reed's?
What crazed love reassures beside the reed's?
This reed flute trills tales of a love-obsessed
Madman of legend on his bloodstained quest.
The lovelost find the meaning here alone.
That tongue speaks to a certain ear alone.
As days slipped off to evenings in our sorrow
We burned and yearned through every hot tomorrow.
But though the days slip off, You will endure
And matter more, Inimitably Pure.
Only the fish forever drink the seas.
A life by bread alone brings longer days.
No raw mind can see through a ripe mind's eye,
So let us talk no more of this. Goodbye.
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